An introduction to buddhism
An introduction to buddhism : teachings on the four noble truths, the eight verses on training the mind, and the lamp fo the path to enlightenment
The Dalai Lama
translated by Thupten Jinpa
2004, 2003, 2018
pp.68-70
p.68
When dealing with the everyday world, or “conventional reality” as it is called in Buddhist texts, naturally there is bound to be a large area of commonality between Buddhist and scientific explanations. Where we find empirical evidence suggesting something to be the case, we must accept its validity because we are engaging in a common area of analysis.
However, this is not to say that Buddhists believe that all phenomena [a fact, event, or condition that can be observed or perceived] can be understood simply by using our critical faculty and our ordinary mind, certainly not.
p.69
Given the limits of our present cognitive ability, certain facts and phenomena may well lie outside the scope of our cognition, at least for the time being.
phenomena [fact, event, or condition that can be experience by the senses (the brain, the nervous system, and the sensory organs: sight (eyes), sound (ears), feel (skin, body), smell (nose), taste (mouth, tongue, nose), feel (gut, stomach, air pressure (ears, body), ...)]
p.69
In Buddhism, therefore, a distinction is made between three classes of phenomena. One class of phenomena, known as “the evident”, comprises those phenomena that can be directly perceived through our sense and so on.
The second is the class of “the slightly obscured”; phenomena that we can understand through inference, using reasoning of different phenomena.
THe third category, known as “the extremely obscured”, refers to facts and phenomena which lie beyond our present ability to cognize.
For the time being, an understanding of such phenomena can only arise on the basis of the testimony of someone who has gained direct experience of them; our acceptance of their validity has to be based initialy upon this valid testimony of a third person.
p.69
I often give an analogy to illustrate this third category of phenomena. Most of us know our date of birth yet we did not acquire the knowledge of this fact first-hand. We learned it through the testimony of our parents or someone else. We accept it through the testimony of our parents or someone else. We accept it as a valid statement because there is no reason why our parents should lie to us about this, and also because we rely on their words as authoritative figures. Of course, sometimes there are exceptions to this rule. For example, sometimes people increase their age to qualify for retirement benefits or reduce their age when seeking employment, and so on. But generally we accept the testimony of a third person that such-and-such date is our date of birth.
pp.69-70
Buddhists accept this third class of “extremely obscured” phenomena on the basis of the scriptural authority of the Buddha. However, our acceptance of that authority is not a simplistic one. We don't just say, “Oh, the Buddha was a very holy person and since he said this I believe it to be true”. There are certain underlying principles involved in the Buddhist acceptance of scripture-based authority. One of these is the principle of the four reliances, which is generally stated as follows:
Rely on the teaching, not on the person;
Rely on the meaning, not on the word;
Rely on the definitive meaning, not on the provisional;
Rely on your wisdom mind, not on your ordinary mind.
p.70
On the basis of this principle of the four reliances we subject the authority of the Buddha, or any other great teacher, to critical analysis by examining the validity of their statements in other areas, especially those that in principle lend themselves to rational enquiry and empirical observation. In addition, we must also examine the integrity of these authoritative figures to establish that they have no ulterior motive for disseminating falsehoods or making the specific claims that we are examining. It is on the basis of such a thorough assessment that we accept the authority of the third person on questions that at present lie outside the scope of our ordinary mind to comprehend.
An introduction to buddhism : teachings on the four noble truths, the eight verses on training the mind, and the lamp fo the path to enlightenment
by The Dalai Lama
translated by Thupten Jinpa
2004, 2003, 2018
____________________________________
“dependent origination”
“causal interdependence.”
[Pratītyasamutpāda][all things is dependence upon other things]
Everything effects everything else. We are part of this system.
this process of dependent origination—causal relationships effected by everything that happens around us
─ everything exists because of a prior cause
─ therefore, their existence is without independent origination
─ lacking of independent origination
─ devoid of independent origination
─ “emptiness” of independent origination
─ lacking independent existence
─ all things arise from / upon other things
─ There is a combination of causes and conditions that is necessary for things to happen.
─ This principle is invariable and stable.
in the affair of humanity and of other things, in human activities, I dare say, from most to all (n = whole set) cases, causes and conditions come (arise) from some things, came from some where, has a history, does not come out of nothing; immaculate conception and then birth is unlikely; there is parentage, a bloodline, hereditary; thus, the principle of dependent origination would apply.
Things don’t just happen. There is a combination of causes and conditions that is necessary for things to happen. This is really important in terms of our inner experience. It is not unusual to have the experience of ending up somewhere, and not knowing how we got there. And feeling quite powerless because of the confusion present in that situation. Understanding how things come together, how they interact, actually removes that sense of powerlessness or that sense of being a victim of life or helplessness. Because if we understand how things come together, we can also begin to understand the way out, how to find another way of being, and realize that life is not random chaos.
The basic principle is that all things (dharmas, phenomena, principles) arise in dependence upon other things.
sources:
• An introduction to buddhism : teachings on the four noble truths, the eight verses on training the mind, and the lamp fo the path to enlightenment
by The Dalai Lama
translated by Thupten Jinpa
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratītyasamutpāda
Pratītyasamutpāda (Sanskrit: 𑀧𑁆𑀭𑀢𑀻𑀢𑁆𑀬𑀲𑀫𑀼𑀢𑁆𑀧𑀸𑀤, Pāli: paṭiccasamuppāda), commonly translated as dependent origination
• https://www.buddhistinquiry.org/article/dependent-origination/
____________________________________
all things are connected, but most are loosely connected
From
Evolving Reactions: 60 Years with March and Simon’s
‘Organizations’
written by Karl E. Weick, University of Michigan
Journal of Management Studies
... ... ...
... ... ...
... ... ...
units are tight within and loose between.
THE MOSAIC FORM
‘Modules’ and ‘programmes’ are prominent nouns in ‘Organizations’. Equally prominent are portrayals of organizational fragments. These portrayals describe sub-units as self-contained, loosely coupled, segmented, departmentalized, decentralized, all of which represent a composite organization (p. 195). The prevailing image is one of tight, self-contained, loosely connected units. This image resembles that of a mosaic, as M&S notice: ‘The whole pattern of programmed activity in an organization is a complicated mosaic of programme executions, each initiated by its appropriate program-evoking step’ (p. 149, italics added). As they say further on, ‘Since there are limits on the power,
K. E. Weick
speed and capacity of human cognition, most human behavior in organizations is constituted by a “mosaic of programs”’ (p. 172, italics added). The image of a mosaic is shorthand for the observation that units, of whatever kind, are tight within and loose between. This insight, eventually expanded into the idea that organizations are loosely coupled systems (e.g., Glassman, 1973; Orton and Weick, 1990), was anticipated when M&S discussed simplification. When people with cognitive limits encounter complex problems, they scale down their action programs. ‘(E)ach action program is capable of being executed in semi-independence of the others – they are only loosely coupled together’ (p. 169).
In a mosaic the whole does not precede the parts. Instead, the whole is a collection of parts that don’t lose their individuality when connected. In an interesting phrasing, M&S observe that it takes efficient communication to ‘tolerate interdependence’ (p.162). This is one reason why M&S are able to get so much mileage out of concepts anchored in individual behaviour. Organizations aggregate ‘very large numbers of elements, each element, taken by itself, being exceedingly simple’ (p. 178). The working assumption seems to be that an organization is a mosaic of loosely coupled subunits whose members are more or less likely to invoke a shared mental set when assigned a task. Said differently, organizations can be portrayed as differentiated tight modules connected loosely by influence processes. There is a timeless quality to this basic pattern which accounts, in part, for its continuing relevance.
For example, the basic pattern is evident in Simon’s (1962) ‘empty world hypothesis’ – most things are only weakly connected with most other things (p. 111). That pattern of tight within stable sub-assemblies and loose between them, was evident in 1958 when M&S discussed planning (pp. 176–7). If the world is empty and most events are unrelated to other events, then local changes in action programmes are sufficient. However, even in a mostly empty world, there are still minimal connections among programmes since ‘they all draw upon the resources of the organization’ (p. 176). As Simon was to put it later, ‘for a tolerable description of reality only a tiny fraction of all possible interactions needs to be taken into account. By adopting a descriptive language that allows the absence of something to go unmentioned, a nearly empty world can be described quite concisely. Mother Hubbard did not have to check off the list of possible contents to say that her cupboard was bare’ (p. 473).
... ... ...
source:
Evolving Reactions: 60 Years with March and Simon’s
‘Organizations’
written by Karl E. Weick, University of Michigan
Journal of Management Studies
doi: 10.1111/joms.12289
56:8 December 2019
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Colquitt, J. A. and Zapata-Phelan, C. P. (2007). ‘Trends in theory building and theory testing:
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Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Glassman, R. B. (1973). ‘Persistence and loose coupling in living systems’. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 18, 83–98.
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Merton, R. K. (1948). ‘The self-fulfilling prophecy’. The Antioch Review, 8, 193–210.
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Charles Perrow, Normal accidents : living with high-risk technologies, 1999 [ ]
Perrow, Charles.
Normal accidents : living with high-risk technologies / Charles Perrow
1. industrial accidents.
2. technology--risk assessment.
3. accident.
HD7262 P55 1999
363.1--dc21
pp.4-5
But suppose the system is also “tightly coupled”, that is, processes happen very fast and can't be turned off, the failed parts cannot be isolated from other parts, or there is no other way to keep the production going safely. Then recovery from the initial disturbance is not possible; it will spread quickly and irretrievably for at least some time. Indeed, operator action or the safety systems may make it worse, since for a time it is not known what the problem really is.
Probably many production processes started out this way──complexly interactive and tightly coupled. But with experience, better designs, equipment, and procedures appeared, and the unsuspected interactions were avoided and the tight coupled reduced. This appears to have happened in the case of air traffic control, where interactive complexity and tight coupling have been reduced by better organization and “technological fixes”.
p.8
DEPOSE components (for design, equipment, procedures, operators, supplies and materials, and environment).
p.8
That accident had its cause in the interactive nature of the world for us that morning and in its tight coupling──not in the discrete failures, which are to be expected and which are guarded against with backup systems. Most of the time we don't notice the inherent coupling in our world, because most of the time there are no failures, or the failures that occur do not interact. But all of a sudden, things that we did not realize could be linked (buses and generators, coffee and a loaned key) became linked. The system is suddenly more tightly coupled than we had realized.
p.9
In complex industrial, space, and military systems, the normal accident generally (not always) means that the interactions are not only unexpected, but are incomprehensible for some critical period of time. In part this is because in these human-machine systems the interactions literally cannot be seen. In part it is because, even if they are seen, they are not believed. As we shall find out and as Robert Jervis and Karl Weick have noted,3 seeing is not necessarily believing; sometimes, we must believe before we can see.
3. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton university press, 1976); and Karl Wieck, “Educational Organizations as Loosely Coupled Systems”, Administrative Science Quarterly 21:1 (March, 1976): 1-19.
p.73
1967, according to a perceptive and disturbing article by one of the editors of Nuclear Safety, E. W. Hagen.4
p.73
Hagen concludes that potential common-mode failures are “the result of adding complexity to system designs”. Ironically, in many cases, the complexity is added to reduce common-mode failures.
p.73
The addition of redundant components has been the main line of defense, but, as Hagen illustrates, also the main source of the failure. “To date, all proposed ‘fixes’ are for more of the same──more components and more complexity in system design.”5 The Rasmussen safety study relied upon a “PRA” (probabilities risk analysis), finding that core melts and the like were virtually impossible.
, finding that core melts and the like were virtually impossible. [[ see list of nuclear power plant "accident" that has core melts down ]]
p.73
The main problem is complexity itself, Hagen argues.
pp.93-94
1. Tightly coupled systems have more time-dependent processes: they cannot wait or stand by until attended to.
Reactions, as in chemical plants, are almost instantaneous and cannot be delayed or extended.
2. The sequences in tightly coupled systems are more invariant.
3. In tightly coupled systems, not only are the specific sequences invariant, but the overall design of the process allows only one way to reach the production goals.
Loosely coupled systems are said to have “equifinality”──many ways to skin the cat; tightly coupled ones have “unifinality”.
4. Tightly coupled systems have little slack.
In loosely coupled systems, supplies and equipment and human power can be wasted without great cost to the system.
pp.94-95
In a tightly coupled systems the buffers and redundancies and substitutions must be designed in; they must be thought of in advance. In loosely coupled systems there is a better chance that expedient, spur-of-the-moment buffers and redundancies and substitutes can be found, even though they were not planned ahead of time.
p.95
But in tightly coupled systems, the recovery aids are largely limited to deliberate, designed-in aids, such as engineered safety devices (in a nuclear plant, emergency coolant pumps and an emergency supply coolant) or engineered safety features (a more general category, which would include a buffering wall between the core and the source of coolant). While some jury-rigging is possible, such possibilities are limited, because of time-dependent sequences, invariant sequences, unifinality, and the absence of slack.
p.95
In loosely coupled systems, in addition to ESDs (emergency safety device) and ESFs (engineered safety device), fortuitous recovery aids are often possible.
p.95
Tightly coupled systems offer few such opportunities. Whether the interactions are complex or linear, they cannot be temporarily altered.
p.95
This does not mean that loosely coupled systems necessarily have sufficient designed-in safety devices; typically, designers perceive they have a safety margin in the form of fortuitous safety devices, and neglect to install even quite obvious ones.
p.96
Table 3.2
Tight and loose coupling tedencies
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tight Coupling Loose Coupling
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Delays in processing not possible Processing delays possible
Invariant sequences Order of sequences can be changed
Only one method to achieve goal Alternative methods available
Little slack possible in supplies, Slack in resources possible
equipment, personnel
Buffers and redundancies are designed-in, Buffers and redundancies
deliberate fortuitiously available
Substitutes of supplies, equipment, Substitutions fortuitously
personnel limited and designed-in available
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( Normal accidents : living with high-risk technologies / Charles Perrow, 1. industrial accidents., 2. technology--risk assessment., 3. accident., HD7262 P55 1999, 363.1--dc21, 1999, )
____________________________________
·‘’•─“”
<------------------------------------------------------------------------>
πόλλ' οἶδ' ἀλώπηξ,ἀλλ' ἐχῖνος ἓν μέγα πόλλ' οἶδ' ἀλώπηξ,ἀλλ' ἐχῖνος ἓν μέγα
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